Preface
Acknowledgments
Abstract
PART I. THE COMPONENTS OF GEOLOGY
Chapter 1. Origins of geology
Alchemy
Observation
Technology and Economics
Social Needs and Connections
PART II. THE EXPERIMENTAL TRADITION: TOOLS AND METHODS
Chapter 2. Characters and how we know them
Introduction
The Characters
Hardness
Instruments and Equipment Used for Hardness Determination
Streak
Color and Related Properties
Transparency and Luster
Specific Gravity
Refraction
Magnetism and Electricity
Cleavage, Fracture, and Fragments
Form
Conclusion
Chapter 3. Heat matters: Fusion
Introduction
Furnaces
Materials
Fuel
Heating Methods
Industrial Furnaces
Metal-working furnaces: Blast and wind
Reverberatory furnaces
Glassworks Furnaces
Porcelain and pottery furnaces
Hazards
Laboratory Furnaces
Portable Furnaces
Lamp Furnaces
Sand and Water Baths
Burning Lenses and Mirrors
Containers
Crucibles
Other Containers
The Blowpipe
Temperature Indicating Devices
Thermometers
Pyrometers
Results
Temperatures Attained
Conclusion
Chapter 4. Evaluation: Degrees of heat
Introduction
The Pyrometer
Relation to the Blowpipe
Conclusion
Chapter 5. Pressure and rock origin
Introduction
Limestone, Heat, and Pressure
The Experiments
Samples
Containers
Furnaces and Position
Measurement and Calculations
Use of Pyrometer Pieces
Specific Gravity Results
Force
Results
Folding, Lateral Pressure
Conclusion
Chapter 6. Chemistry in the service of geology: Equipment
Introduction
In the Laboratory
Containers and Reaction Vessels
Glass
Earthenware or Pottery
Porcelain and Stoneware
Metal: Iron, Copper, Platinum
Balances
Magnifiers and Microscopes
Collateral Equipment
Chapter 7. Chemistry in the service of geology: Procedures, reagents, reactions
Introduction
Procedures
Solution
Digestion
Distillation
Precipitation
Titration
Filtration
Pulverization
Reagents
Acids and Bases
Indicators
Salts
Methods and Reactions
Mineral Analysis
Procedures
Leucite
Rock Analysis
Serpentinite
Basalt and Lava
Mineral Waters
Gases
Conclusion
Chapter 8. Other investigative methods
Introduction
Gravity
Magnetism
Electricity
Seismology
Historical Records
Hydroscope-Metalloscope: Dowsing and Divining
Drilling and Boring
Water
Salt
Mining: Ores and Coal
Other Methods
Conclusion
PART III. GEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
Chapter 9. Rock origin: The investigations—Granite and limestone
Introduction
Where They Started: Theories of Earth
Granite
Fusion
Solution
Limestone and Marble
Conclusions
Chapter 10. Rock origin: The investigations—Basalt and the central fire
Introduction
The Measured Heat of Earth
Temperatures
In the Field
Temperature Gradient
Volcanoes
Some Results of Temperature Work
Cooling Experiments
Heat Conduction, Insolation
Fusion Experiments
Furnaces
The Experiments
Analysis
Chemical
Blowpipe
Cordier’s Methods
Fluid Contents
Water
Gases
Conclusion
PART IV. HOW DID GEOLOGY CHANGE?
Chapter 11. Rock origin from the experimenters
Introduction
Limestone Origin
Granite Origin
Basalt Origin
Maturing Thought
Theory of Rock Origin before 1750
The Midcentury
to 1799
After 1800
Chapter 12. The place of experiment
Introduction
Experiment/Observation
Ideas in Flux
Fitting It In
Judgment Now
Conclusion
Epilogue
References Cited
Index