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Table of Contents - Special Paper 467

Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú

by Georg Petersen G.
translated by William E. Brooks

Introduction Gianluca Groppelli and Lothar Viereck-Goette					v
Introduction to the English translation of Mining and Metallurgy in Ancient Perú William E. Brooks					vii
Preface: Georg Petersen Gaulke, 1898–1985 C. Richard Petersen					xiii
Letter from Duccio Bonavia					xv
Letter from Alfredo Gurmendi					xvi
Prologue					xix
Acknowledgments					xxi
Introduction					1
Chapter 1. Minerals, Gems, and Pigments					3
	Paintings at Sacsahuaman				9
	Pigments from Paracas				9
	Pigments from Pachacamac				10
	Polychromatic Pigments from Vieja Lima				10
	Polychrome Murals from Pañamarca				10
	Miscellaneous (Pearls, Mother of Pearl, Mollusks, Abalone, Shark Teeth, and Silicified Wood)				12
	Other Mollusks Found in Ancient Burials				14
Chapter 2. Ornamental and Industrial Stone					15
	Construction				15
		Igneous Origin			15
		Sedimentary Origin			15
		Metamorphic Origin			16
	Statues, Stellae, Monoliths, Idols, and Other Purposes				16
	Artifacts and Tools				17
		Andesite, Granodiorite, Granite, Porphyry, and Diorite			17
		Silicified Clay, Limey Clay, Silicified Slates			17
		Quartz, Slate, Flint, Obsidian, Crystalline Quartz, Rose Quartz, Opal, Onyx, Topaz, Turquoise, and Others			18
	Quarries, Building, and Construction Materials				18
	Other Mineral Materials used for Construction				19
		Toma Luz Center			20
		Road Metal			21
		Adobe			21
		Adobón			21
Chapter 3. Metals					23
	Gold				23
		Colombia			23
		Perú			23
			Vein Occurrences		23
			Alluvial Occurrences		24
			Alluvial Gold Mining		26
		Bolivia			27
	Silver				27
	Copper				28
	Mercury				29
	Additional Observations				29
		Tin			29
			Bolivia		29
			Chile		30
			Perú		30
		Lead			30
		Iron			31
			Iron Minerals, Oxides, Hydroxides, and Sulfides		32
		Platinum			33
			Bolivia		33
			Chile		33
			Colombia		33
			Ecuador		33
			Perú		34
				Rio Santiago	34
				Piura-Tumbes	34
				Lambayeque	34
				Cerro de Pasco	34
				Paracas	34
				Cusco	34
Chapter 4. Mining					35
	Ancient Mining Camps				35
		Bolivia			35
		Chile			35
		Perú			35
	Open-Pit Mining				35
		Alluvial Occurrences			35
		Mineralized Veins			35
	Underground Workings				36
	Mining Methods				36
	Mining Tools				36
		Stone Implements			36
		Metal			37
		Ceramic			37
		Horn and Bone			37
		Wood and Other Materials			37
	Sites Where Tools Have Been Found				38
		Perú			38
		Argentina			38
		Bolivia			38
		Chile			38
Chapter 5. The Chuquicamata Mummy, an Ancient Mining Accident					39
Chapter 6. Inca Mining in the Altiplano					41
	Etymology of Titicaca				43
		Quechua Etymology			44
		Aymara Etymology			44
Chapter 7. Metallurgy					47
	Gold				47
	Silver				47
		Curamba Smelter			48
	Mercury				49
	Tin				49
	Copper				49
		Qualitative Analysis of Native Copper from Perú			50
	A Metallurgical Center at Chan Chan				51
	Copper Metallurgy in Northern Chile				53
	Copper Metallurgy in Bolivia				54
Chapter 8. Alloys					55
	Gold-Silver				55
	Gold-Copper				56
		Depletion Gilding			57
	Gold-Platinum				58
	Silver-Copper				58
	Silver-Tin				58
	Copper-Lead				58
	Copper-Silicon				59
	Copper-Tin (Bronze)				59
		In Quechua			59
		In Aymara			59
		Bronze Smelting			59
		A Star-Shaped Bronze Clubhead			60
	Copper-Arsenic				61
	Other Copper Alloys				62
Chapter 9. Metalworking and Fabrication					63
	Cold-Hammered Artifacts				63
	Welding				63
	Agglutination				63
	Gilding				63
	Casting (Lost Wax)				64
Chapter 10. Mirrors					65
	Anthracite				65
	Gold				65
	Silver				65
	Obsidian				65
	Hematite				65
	Bronze				66
	Pyrite				66
	Volcanic Rock				66
Endnotes					67
References Cited and Other Selected References					70
Figures					75
Appendix: Selected Bibliography					88
	Cremation and the Chan Chan Burned Site				88
	The Chuquicamata Mummy				88
	Cinnabar, Mercury, and Small-Scale Gold Mining				88
	Coal				88
	General				89
	Gold and Platinum				89
	Guano/Fertilizer				89
	Hazards				89
	Minerals, Gems, and Pigments				90
	Mining, Metallurgy, and Alloys				90
	Ornamental and Industrial Stone				90
	Petroleum				90
	Salt				90
	Terminology				90