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flexibility and problem-solving (National
Science Teachers Association, n.d.). How­
ever, three choices should be the maximum
provided to decrease the chance of being
overwhelmed (Education Insider, 2015).
Cooperative learning should be used to
build social skills (Virginia Dept. of
Education, 2011, p. 19, 115). Because indi-
vidual strengths are integral to the group,
cooperative learning enables students with
autism to utilize advanced skill sets.
Emphasizing individual strengths within
the group may help students carve a
niche in the classroom hierarchy, and
improve self-esteem and peer acceptance
(Chalufour, 2010).
APPLICATIONS
Teachers could teach a scientific concept
alongside an application into the hidden
curriculum—that is, concepts not normally
intended to be taught in lessons. Examples
include social skills such as deceit, life
skills, and flexibility to changes. To orga- order and routine. Finding the fossils and
nize these concepts, students can use a
double-entry journal to log the scientific
area of study alongside its application.
Typically, children develop their under-
standing and application of concepts, such
as determining sarcasm, innately, but
many students with autism require specific
instruction in this regard (National Science CONCLUSIONS
Teachers Association, n.d.). To help stu-
dents understand deceit, they could
research causes of falsified fossil records. sizes reading, writing, and math more than
Fossils have been falsified for attention,
money, fame, religion, medicinal quackery,
and to embarrass others (Monteith, 2012).
Discussing the concepts of sarcasm, lies,
and deception with examples may help
students apply them to their own lives.
The fossil record can be used to explore
the concept of change. The fossil record
contains patterns of extreme and sudden
change followed by long periods of stasis
(punctuated equilibrium). Learning and
exploring the concept of change, being
able to name types of change, and seeing
that there are times of stability can help
prepare students with autism for life
changes such as moving to middle or high
school, or into adulthood. The teacher can
point out that these periods of change are
followed by periods of calm and equilib-
rium. Moreover, this lesson can be used as
a springboard for calming strategies dur-
ing periods of change. Students will then
be better equipped to deal with expected
changes because they can expect periods
of stasis as well. Even in an inclusive class-
room, special-needs students may have
difficulty relating to their peers and vice
versa. However, learning about the differ-
ences between brachiopods and bivalves,
for example, could demonstrate that differ-
ences do not preclude similarities. The
class could be grouped and assigned ques-
tions to discover common interests.
One field trip technique that helps stu-
dents with autism overcome defensive
behaviors, such as repetitive self-stimula-
tion, is a fossil-collecting trip. In the
Hudson Valley, New York, USA, there are
several shale outcrops from which it is
easy to collect specimens of brachiopods,
solitary corals, and bivalves. Students are
given a handout and plastic bags and told
to scour the outcrop to locate the fossils
and place them in the bags. They work in
pairs and become very enthusiastic and
more curious and energetic as their collec-
tion grows. Ritual with the same pattern
reduces fear of change; it is a task with
identifying the specimens could act as a
distraction that makes some of them tem-
porarily forget their defensive behaviors. It
should be noted that in addition to collect-
ing opportunities such as that mentioned in
the Hudson Valley, numerous opportunities
exist elsewhere and should be sought out.
The Common Core curriculum empha-
science and history. However, this does not
diminish the importance of science to
every student, and especially to students
with autism. Although most of these meth-
odologies benefit students at the higher
end of the ASD spectrum, geoscience can
be utilized to encourage long-term growth
socially and emotionally. Teachers can
build on effective teaching methodologies
to strengthen socio-emotional skills,
develop self-confidence, and mitigate anx-
iety in students with autism.
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Manuscript received 16 Nov. 2016
Revised manuscript received 10 May 2017
Manuscript accepted 21 June 2017
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