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footnote 2] ) , and the overall combined   research with academic research   EPA research has focused on docu-
            risk is difficult to assess ( Rodak and   ( Multiagency, 2014) .      menting risks and identifying knowledge
            Silliman, 2012) . For example, of 1606   Seven priority research areas were   gaps regarding impacts of UOG develop-
            chemicals identified in wastewater from   identified: ( 1)  domestic UOG resource   ment on drinking-water sources ( USEPA,
            UOG wells, chronic toxicity values are   development trends to identify potential   2016) . The EPA is also engaged in the
            only available for 173 ( USEPA, 2016) .   future impacts;  ( 2)  effects of hydraulic   induced seismicity issue because the
            The United States will continue to rely on   fracturing water consumption on local   agency is responsible for regulating
            the production of fossil fuel hydrocarbons   and regional water availability;  ( 3)  poten-  UIC wells.
            for some time ( Fig. S3 [ see footnote 2] ) ,   tial water-quality degradation from UOG   An NSF-supported study of the link-
            and understanding of the risks must be   development and linkage of contaminants   ages and relationships between agricul-
            improved.                          to UOG activity;  ( 4)  potential short-    ture, energy, and water resources on the
              Researchers at government agencies,   and long-term air-quality impairments;     northern Great Plains investigated a con-
            universities, institutes, and industry have   ( 5)  induced seismicity from fracking and   cept called the food-energy-water ( FEW)
            been investigating potential human-health   liquid waste disposal in underground   nexus. This area contains just 1%  of the
            and environmental impacts of UOG   injection control ( UIC)  wells;  ( 6)  potential   U.S. population, yet it produces 23%  of
            development. Herein we use “ environ-  impacts of UOG development on terres-  the nation’s crop value and 16%  of U.S.
            mental impacts”  to refer to impacts on   trial and aquatic ecosystems;  and    energy. Scarce water resources are heav-
            aquatic and terrestrial organisms, com-  ( 7)  possible effects of UOG development   ily used for both agriculture and energy,
            munities, and ecosystems. This article   on human health. Lead roles in these   and tipping points were identified that
            aims to highlight the critical research   seven areas were given to agencies based   could prevent recovery of water
            questions in this area and to provide   on core capabilities and mission ( U.S.   resources. Thus, sustainable water man-
            access to results of ongoing research.  DOE, 2015)  ( Fig. S4 [ see footnote 2] ) .  agement practices are critical ( Sieverding
                                                 DOE research focused on engineering   and Jones, 2015) .
            RESEARCH Q UESTIONS AND            investigations of how drilling fluids,
            PRIORITIES                         hydraulic fracturing chemicals, and pro-  RESEARCH TO AD D RESS
              The Health Effects Institute in Boston,   duced liquids and gas may escape from   POTENTIAL AIR-  AND  W ATER-
                                               wellbores, tanks, and other containments
            Massachusetts, conducted an exhaustive   and enter the environment ( e.g., Fig. S5   Q UALITY IMPACTS OF UOG
            review of the scientific literature and   [ see footnote 2] ) . Studies include wellbore   D EVELOPMENT
            solicited expert advice to identify the   integrity and cement technology   Airborne pollutants from UOG develop-
            research needed to reduce uncertainty   ( Kutchko et al., 2012) ;  fate and transport   ment include methane ( CH ) , carbon diox-
                                                                                                      4
            about potential human-health and envi-  of frack chemicals in groundwater ( Soeder   ide ( CO ) , nitrogen oxides ( NO ) , volatile
                                                                                        2
                                                                                                         x
            ronmental-impact risks from UOG devel-  et al., 2014) ;  and the potential for green-  organic compounds ( VOCs) , and particu-
            opment ( HEI, 2015) , identifying thirteen   house gas ( GHG)  releases ( Pekney et al.,   late matter ( PM)  released during well pad
            critical research areas ( Table S1) .  2014) . Field research sites have been estab-  construction, drilling ( Figs. S5 and S6 [ see
              Assessing human-health impacts from   lished by DOE in West Virginia, Texas,   footnote 2] ) , hydraulic fracturing ( Fig.
            UOG operations is complicated and chal-  Louisiana, and Virginia.     S2) , returned-fluids handling, and produc-
            lenging. A typical approach combines   DOI research has primarily been per-  tion ( Fig. S7 [ see footnote 2] ) . VOCs and
            toxicology data with measurements of   formed by the U.S. Geological Survey   NO  directly degrade local and regional
                                                                                     x
            chemical exposure. Shale development   ( USGS)  to assess technically recoverable   air quality and can form ground-level
            sites have multiple stressors that may be   UOG resources ( e.g., USGS, 2015) , under-  oz one and particulate matter. Variations in
            detrimental to human health in nearby   stand the chemical composition of pro-  the composition and scale of air emissions
            communities, such as chemical stress   duced and formation waters ( e.g., Orem et   complicate characteriz ation of UOG sites.
            from produced-water spills, physical   al., 2014;  Blondes et al., 2017) , and com-  Automated collection and analysis of air
            stress from airborne particulate matter,   pile data related to water used for hydrau-  samples obtained with mobile laboratories
            sensory stress from the noise and light,   lic fracturing ( e.g., Gallegos et al., 2015) .   provide inputs for atmospheric fate and
            and emotional stress from traffic and   Water quality upstream and downstream   transport models ( Pekney et al., 2014) .
            equipment. Geoscientists play a critical   from oil and gas wastewater injection and   Methane leakage from gas wells contrib-
            role in identifying possible exposure   pipeline spill sites has been assessed ( Fig.   utes to GHG emissions, and although it
            routes of potentially haz ardous materials.  1 # 8)  ( e.g., Akob et al., 2016;  Coz z arelli et   has a shorter residence time in the atmo-
              The U.S. Department of the Interior   al., 2017) , along with impacts on wildlife   sphere compared to CO , CH  is a much
                                                                                                    2
                                                                                                        4
            ( DOI) , Environmental Protection Agency   driven by UOG-related modifications to   more powerful GHG. On the other hand,
            ( EPA) , and DOE developed a collabora-  landscapes ( e.g., Preston and Kim, 2016;    abundant natural gas from shale has
            tive research framework for assessing risk   USGS, 2017) . Induced seismicity, which   resulted in the replacement of many old,
            from UOG development. The Department   results primarily from the disposal of pro-  coal-fired power plants with natural gas-
            of Health and Human Services ( HHS)    duced water down UIC wells ( Fig. 1 # 9)    fired generation, significantly decreasing
            was engaged for human-health issues, and   ( Rubinstein and Mahani, 2015) , was   CO  emissions from electricity production
                                                                                    2
            the National Science Foundation ( NSF)    investigated under the USGS earthquake   ( USEIA, 2017)  and improving air quality
            was engaged to coordinate federal   haz ards program.                 ( Mac Kinnon et al., 2018) .

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